Use of anabolic agents, anti-catabolic agents, antioxidant agents, and analgesics for protection, treatment and repair of connective tissues in humans and animals

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to compositions for the modulation of inflammation in connective tissues in humans and animals and the modulation of markers of such inflammation, including COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, p38, and chemokines, comprising any or all of anabolic, anti-catabolic, anti-oxidant and analgesic agents, including aminosugars, S-adenosylmethionine, arachadonic acid, GAGs, including pentosan, collagen type II, tetracyclines or tetracycline-like compounds, diacerin, super oxide dismutase, L-ergothioneine, methylsulfanylmethane, one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables, and an analgesic, e.g., acetaminophen, and to methods of treating humans and animals by administration of these novel compositions to humans and animals in need thereof.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/824,498, filed Apr. 15, 2004, which is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 10/192,318, filed Jul. 11, 2002, which is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 09/274,881, filed Mar. 23, 1999, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/088,205, filed Jun. 5, 1998, entitled “A COMPOSITION OF ACETAMINOPHEN, AN AMINOSUGAR AND A GLYCOSAMINOGLYCAN,” and which further is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. Ser. No. 09/249,335, filed Feb. 12, 1999, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/074,594, filed Feb. 13, 1998, entitled “THE USE OF ANABOLIC AGENTS, ANTI-CATABOLIC AGENTS, ANTIOXIDANT AGENTS, AND ANALGESICS FOR PROTECTION, TREATMENT AND REPAIR OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES IN HUMANS AND ANIMALS.” The disclosures of the above-referenced applications are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to compositions for the protection, treatment, repair, and modulation of inflammation of connective tissues in humans and other animals.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The tissues of mammals, including humans, are in a constant state of flux between the anabolic processes that build up tissues, and the catabolic processes which degrade tissues. The state of health exists when there is a balance between these two processes, and derangements of the balance produce disease. This holds true for all tissues of the body. Connective tissues are of particular importance for several reasons. First, they support the “functional cells” of the body, i.e., epithelial, muscle and neural cells. Second, they play critical roles in intercellular communication, which is essential for multicellular life.

The inflammatory process occupies a key position in this balance. When injury to tissues occurs, inflammation initiates the biochemical processes that result in tissue repair. Because inflammation results in the symptoms of pain, inflammation, and swelling of the tissues involved, it is often-regarded by both patients and physicians as an abnormal and undesirable state, which should be treated and relieved as soon and as completely as possible. As a result, pharmacies are full of “anti-inflammatory drugs” (such as corticosteroids and the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin). Under certain circumstances, inflammation can indeed be destructive; however, it is important to remember that inflammation is closely linked with tissue healing. Indeed, inflammation is not easily categorized as strictly anabolic or catabolic—it may have either effect. Its purpose in the body is to remove, dilute or wall-off the injurious agent(s). It also sets into motion the biochemical processes that repair and reconstruct the damaged tissue. Because it is essential to healing, and because it can also cause tissue destruction, inflammation and its mediators are important factors in the anabolic and catabolic balance.

One very important class of inflammatory mediators is the eicosanoid group. The eicosanoids are synthesized in the body from essential fatty acids (“FAs”). Through a series of biochemical reactions, the precursor fatty acids are modified to produce intermediate metabolites, arachadonic acid (“AA”), an omega-6 FA; and eicosapentanoic acid (“EPA”), an omega-3 FA. Eicosanoids produced from arachidonic acid include the 2-series of prostaglandins and the 4-series of leukotrienes, which are generally proinflammatory. The eicosanoids derived from EPA, such as the 3 series prostaglandins and hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acid (“HEPE”), are less inflammatory than those derived from AA. In addition, such eicosanoids may even have anti-inflammatory effects.

As a class, the eicosanoids are short-lived and locally active. They are responsible for the initial events of inflammation, including vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, and chemotaxis. Moreover, the eicosanoids are instrumental in the early steps of the healing process. For example, the eicosanoids trigger the release of cytokines such as TGF-B, which in turn stimulates the migration and proliferation of connective tissue cells, and the deposition of extracellular matrix. Specific constitutive eicosanoids also have protective effects in the gastrointestinal mucosa and kidney, because they maintain glycosaminoglycan synthesis and normal perfusion of these organs.

Because of anabolic processes such as these, and because of the influence of natural anti-catabolic and anti-oxidant agents in the body, the outcome of the majority of cases of inflammation is resolution of the injury and healing of the damaged tissues. Only in pathologic situations does inflammation itself become a contributor to disease.

Research on the therapeutic use of eicosanoid precursor FAs (including cis-linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids, the so-called omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids) has been primarily directed towards their use as competitive inhibitors of the synthesis of eicosanoids, and therefore, their anti-inflammatory effects. Except in cases of severe or absolute dietary deficiency, little attention has been given to the beneficial, anabolic effects that the eicosanoids have in connective tissues. However, naturally occurring “subclinical” deficiencies of eicosanoids probably contribute significantly to disease, and are under diagnosed. For example, the enzyme delta-6-desaturase is responsible for the committed step in the synthesis of AA. Activity of this enzyme, (delta-6-desaturase) decreases with age. This is likely to prove a significant factor in the increased incidence of connective tissue dysfunction in older population segments since a deficiency of AA would decrease anabolic processes and allow catabolic events to dominate.

Given the importance of inflammation in the healing of tissues, and the protective role that some eicosanoids play, it is not surprising that pharmaceuticals that decrease inflammation by blocking eicosanoid production should also have negative effects on healing and anabolic processes. It has long been known that corticosteroid drugs, which are strongly anti-inflammatory, also delay healing and decrease the production of extracellular matrix components. This is because cortisol and related compounds stabilize cell membranes and therefore inhibit the release of phospholipase A2, the precursor of AA. Recently attention has turned to the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (“NSAIDs”). Numerous studies have shown that NSAIDs, like corticosteroids, can decrease the synthesis of matrix components by connective tissue cells, because they inhibit prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase, and thus block the cyclooxygenase pathway.

Since the inflammatory process is the sine qua non of tissue healing, and since the eicosanoids are the mediators of the inflammatory process, the use of AA (and other eicosanoid compounds) is a novel approach to therapy of injured tissues. Kirkpatrick et al. investigated the use of prostanoid precursors on chick embryonic cartilage in organ culture and found no significant effects. [Kirkpatrick, C. J., “Effects of Prostanoid Precursors and Indomethacin on Chick Embryonic Cartilage Growth in Organ Culture,” Expl. Cell Biol., 51:192-200 (1993)]. The experimental model in this work may have contributed to the absence of significant effects, because avian cartilage and embryonic cartilage differ significantly from mammalian, postnatal cartilage. For example, embryonic cartilage of any species is hypermetabolic and anabolic to begin with because it is in a period of exponential growth. Kent et al. examined the effects of AA in lapine cartilage and found a positive effect, although previous and subsequent research failed to confirm this. [Kent, L. et al., “Differential Response of Articular Chondrocyte Populations to Thromboxane B2 and Analogs of Prostaglandin Cyclic Endoperoxidases,” Prostaglandins. 19:391-406 (1980)]. Kirkpatrick and Gardner found that AA and various metabolites of AA had insignificant or inhibitory effects on biosynthesis. [Kirkpatrick C. J. and Gardner, D. L., “Influence of PGAI on Cartilage Growth,” Experientia, 33(4):504 (1976)]. Lippiello, et al. found, however, that AA and other omega-6 fatty acids had beneficial effects on chondrocyte metabolism in cell culture. [Lippiello, L., Ward, M., “Modification of articular cartilage chondrocyte metabolism by in vitro enrichment with fatty acids (abstract),” Trans. Orthop. Res. Soc. 13:162 (1988); Lippiello, L., “Prostaglandins and articular cartilage; does Prostaglandin perturbation perpetuate cartilage destruction?” Semin Arthritis Rheum 11:87 (1981).] These variable results are not unexpected, since the balance between anabolic and catabolic processes in the body is delicate and easily perturbed. Phan et al., suggest that products of AA via the cyclooxygenase pathway are anti-fibrogenic while AA products via the lipoxygenase pathway are pro-fibrogenic. This phenomenon demonstrates the complexity of the eicosanoids' interactions.

Catabolic events are typically mediated in the body by enzymes that break apart body constituents. Catabolism is essential for health and deficiency of necessary enzymes results in disease, such as the so-called storage diseases like mucopolysaccharhidosis. Excessive catabolism may also result in the breakdown of tissues and lead to disease, as in degenerative diseases like osteoarthritis or autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis. Various anti-catabolic substances in the body help contain and balance catabolism. For example, chondroitin sulfate counteracts metalloproteinases that catabolize collagen and proteoglycans in the cartilage matrix. Similarly, alpha-one anti-trypsin inhibits the effects of elastase, which contributes to alveolar breakdown in emphysema.

Oxidative damage also has an impact on the balance of anabolism and catabolism in the body. This damage is the result of the effects of free radicals, substances that have an unpaired electron. Free radicals form constantly in the body as the result of normal reactions like the production of ATP. They also form during the inflammatory process. Free radicals cause cellular damage because they are highly chemically reactive. Because they have only a single electron, (a condition that nature abhors as it does a vacuum), these substances “steal” electrons from molecules in their vicinity. The molecules making up cell structures, such as the cell membrane or DNA are thereby rendered electron-deficient. The deficiency of electrons in turn makes the cell structure unstable and cell dysfunction occurs, including manufacture of abnormal proteins, cell rupture, and cell death. Oxidative damage is implicated in many catabolic events in the body, including the aging process. Anti-oxidants, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, superoxide dismutase (SOD), selenium, and glutathione are substances that scavenge free radicals before oxidative damage occurs. In the sense that they prevent cell damage, anti-oxidants are a specific type of anti-catabolic agent.

The body also contains anabolic compounds that stimulate tissue growth. Glucosamine is an amino sugar naturally formed in the body from glucose. When supplied exogenously, glucosamine stimulates connective tissue cell synthesis, and thereby increases the amounts of normal extracellular matrix. Glucosamine is also the building block for glycosaminoglycans in cartilage and other connective tissues. Supplying additional glucosamine thus supplies the body with extra raw materials for matrix synthesis in connective tissues. Other examples of anabolic compounds in the body include somatotropin, which stimulates protein synthesis, and the somatomedins or insulin-like growth factors, which stimulate the proliferation of chondrocytes and fibroblasts and enhance matrix synthesis.

The actions and interactions of these compounds are complex. A given compound may have different effects in different tissues. For example, somatotropin increases protein synthesis (anabolism), but also speeds fat breakdown (catabolism). The effects that a particular compound or combination of compounds will have depend on many factors, including route of administration, dosage, and duration of therapy.

Previous researchers have investigated the use of individual compounds for their anabolic, anti-oxidant or anti-catabolic effects. Glucosamine has been found in cell culture to stimulate connective tissue cells to produce the components of the matrix: collagen and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). [Jimenez, S., “The Effects of Glucosamine sulfate on Chondrocyte Gene Expression,” Eular Symposium, Madrid October 1996 Proceedings, page 8-10]. S-adenosylmethionine is known to participate in several synthesis reactions, including the sulfation of GAGs. [Champe, P. Biochemistry, 2.sup.nd edition, J. B. Lippincott Co, Philadelphia, 1994, pp. 248, 250, 265]. Arachadonic acid has been found to stimulate corneal healing. [Nakamura, M., “Arachidonic Acid Stimulates Corneal Epithelial Migration”, J. Ocul. Pharmacol., Summer:10(2): 453-9 (1994)]. These compounds therefore have anabolic effects.

Chondroitin sulfate has been shown to inhibit degradative enzymes, including the metalloproteinases that destroy cartilage matrix. [Bartolucci, C., “Chondroprotective action of chondroitin sulfate,” Int. J. Tiss. Reac., XIII(6):311-317 (1991)]. Studies with pentosan sulfate have shown that it prevents complement-mediated damage in a rabbit myocardial cells. [Kilgore, K., “The Semisynthetic Polysaccharide Pentosan Polysulfate Prevents Complement-Mediated Myocardial Injury in the Rabbit Perfused Heart,” J. Pharmocol. Exp. Ther., 285(3):987-94 (1998)]. Oral administration of collagen type II has been shown to decrease the deleterious immune response that destroys joint tissue in rheumatoid arthritis. Tetracycline analogues are potent inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases. [Ryan, M., “Potential of Tetracyclines to Modify Cartilage Breakdown in Osteoarthritis.” [Curr. Opin. Rheumatol., 8(3): 238-47 (1996)]. Diacerein modifies the inflammatory process by inhibiting interleukin-1 activity, and also by direct effects on lymphocytes and neutrophils. [Beccerica, E., “Diacetylrhein and rhein: in vivo and in vitro effect on lymphocyte membrane fluidity,” Pharmocol. Res., 22(3):277-85 (1990); Mian, M., “Experimental Studies on Diacerhein: Effects on the Phagocytosis of Neutrophil Cells from Subcutaneous Carregeenan-Induced Exudate,” Drugs Exp. Clin. Res., 13(11):695-8 (1987); Spencer, C., “Diacerein”, Drugs, 53(1):98-106 (1997)]. These compounds can be classed as anti-catabolic agents.

L-ergothioneine scavenges hydroxyl radicals and may inhibit singlet oxygen formation, [Han J S. “Effects of Various Chemical Compounds on Spontaneous and Hydrogen Peroxide Induced Reversion in Strain TA104 of Salmonella typhimurium,” Mutant Res., 266(2):77-84 (1992)], while superoxide dismutase scavenges superoxide radicals [Mathews C., Biochemistry 2.sup.nd ed., Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co., Menlo Park Calif., 1996, page 551]. These compounds can be classified as anti-oxidants.

Although these compounds have been investigated individually, to our knowledge no one other than the present inventors has examined the effects of certain combinations of any or all of anabolic, anti-catabolic and anti-oxidant agents to maintain health and to promote healing. According to the present invention, combinations of these agents can be used to maximize appropriate anabolic effects (healing) and decrease undesirable catabolic effects (degradation) and oxidative damage, while at the same time, causing minimal or no adverse reactions. Therefore, it can be seen that there exists a need to provide compositions that will make use of the beneficial effects of combinations of anabolic agents, anti-catabolic agents, anti-oxidant and/or analgesic agents for the maintenance and repair of connective tissues in humans and animals.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides novel compositions and methods of treating repairing, and preventing damage to connective tissues in humans and animals using such compositions. Therefore, it is an object of the invention to provide novel compositions of any or all of anabolic, anti-catabolic, anti-oxidant and/or analgesic agents for the protection, treatment and repair of connective tissues in humans and animals.

It is another object of the present invention to provide methods of treating and repairing connective tissue in humans and animals with compositions containing any or all of anabolic, anti-catabolic, anti-oxidant and/or analgesic agents.

It is still another object of the present invention to provide compositions comprising any or all of anabolic, anti-catabolic, anti-oxidant and/or analgesic agents selected from the group consisting of aminosugar, S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), arachadonic acid (AA), GAG, pentosan sulfate, collagen type II, tetracyclines, diacerin, super oxide dismutase (SOD), L-ergothioneine, one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables (ASUs) and analgesics, such as acetaminophen.

It is a further object of the present invention to provide compositions to repair, treat, and prevent damage to connective tissue in humans and animals that contain one or more of the elements selected from the group consisting of aminosugar, SAMe, arachodonic acid, GAG, pentosan sulfate, collagen type II, tetracyclines, diacerin, SOD, L-ergothioneine, one or more ASUs and analgesics, e.g, acetaminophen.

It is a further object of the present invention to provide compositions to modulate inflammation associated with damage to connective tissue in humans and animals.

These and other objects of the present invention are apparent from the detailed description and claims below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 provides a detailed description of the biosynthetic pathway for the creation of GAGs such as chondroitin sulfate.

FIG. 2 is the molecular structure of SAMe and its immediate precursor.

FIG. 3 provides a simplified diagram of the function of SOD.

FIG. 4 provides some examples of unsaponifiable lipids.

FIG. 5 is the molecular structure of acetaminophen.

FIGS. 6A and 6B show images of extracellular matrix (ECM) and chondrocytes on microcarriers as observed at two different time periods in Example 7.

FIG. 7 is an image of chondrocytes stained for type II collagen as observed in Example 7.

FIG. 8 shows two charts illustrating PGE-2 response to IL-1β activation as measured in Example 7.

FIG. 9 shows a chart illustrating the modulation of PGE-2 response to avocado/soybean unsaponifiables (ASUs), chondroitin sulfate, and glucosamine in accordance with Example 7.

FIG. 10 shows a chart illustrating TNF-α expression in THP-1 cells in accordance with Example 8.

FIG. 11 is a chart illustrating IL-1β in accordance with Example 8.

FIG. 12 is a chart illustrating iNOS expression in THP-1 cells as measured in Example 8.

FIG. 13 is a chart illustrating p38 expression in THP-1 cells as measured in Example 8.

FIGS. 14A and 14B illustrate the inhibition of COX-2 in activated chondrocytes, as measured in Example 9.

FIG. 15 is a chart illustrating secreted PGE-2 levels as measured in Example 9.

FIG. 16 is a chart illustrating interleukin-8 (IL-8) expression in human chondrocytes as measured in Example 11.

FIG. 17 is a chart illustrating monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP) expression in human chondrocytes as measured in Example 11.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The compositions of the present invention, used to treat, repair, and prevent damage to connective tissue, include combinations of anabolic, anti-catabolic, and/or anti-oxidant agents. Ingredients of preferred embodiments include compositions selected from the group consisting of aminosugars, SAMe, AA, GAGs, including pentosan, collagen type II, tetracyclines, diacerin, SOD, L-ergothioneine, methylsulfanylmethane (MSM), and one or more ASUs. Optionally, the combinations of the present invention also include one or more analgesics, such as acetaminophen. In addition, the present invention covers methods of administering these novel compositions to humans and animals in need thereof.

Glucosamine—an example of an aminosugar—is naturally formed in the body from glucose. When supplied exogenously, glucosamine stimulates connective tissue cell synthesis, increasing the amounts of normal extracellular matrix. Glucosamine is also the building block for glycosaminoglycans (“GAGs”) in cartilage and other connective tissues, thus, supplying additional glucosamine supplies the body with extra raw materials for matrix synthesis in connective tissues. The aminosugar component of the compositions of the present invention may comprise natural, synthetic or semi-synthetic aminosugars including but not limited to salts of glucosamine including glucosamine hydrochloride and glucosamine sulfate, glucosamine phosphate, and N-acetylglucosamine and salts and/or mixtures thereof. In addition, the term aminosugar is also used herein to encompass aminosugars that may have been chemically modified yet retain their function. Such chemical modifications include but are not limited to esterification, sulfation, polysulfation, acetylation, and methylation. Moreover, it is contemplated that the term aminosugar can extend to any composition of matter that is insubstantially different from the aminosugar as above-described.

The GAG component of the compositions of the present invention may comprise natural, synthetic or semisynthetic GAGs, GAG-like compounds, or GAG precursors, including but not limited to chondroitin, hyaluronic acid, glucuronic acid, iduronic acid, keratan sulfate, heparan sulfate, dermatin sulfate, and fragments, salts, and mixtures thereof. In addition, the term GAG as used herein further encompasses GAGs that have been chemically altered yet retain their function. Such modifications include but are not limited to esterification, sulfation, polysulfation, and methylation. In fact, sulfated GAGs are a preferred component of the compositions of the present invention. Hence, mono-sulfated and polysulfated (or oversulfated) GAGs are preferred GAG components of the compositions of the present invention. The term GAGs also is intended to encompass alternative nomenclature for the same group of above-described compounds—e.g., mucopolysaccharides, proteoglycans, and heparanoids. In addition, the GAG or GAG-like component of the compositions of the present invention may be derived from plant or animal sources, including but not limited to beechwood tree, to forms of animal cartilage including shark cartilage, bovine trachea, whale septum, and porcine nostrils, and to invertebrates such as Perna canaliculus and sea cucumber.

Chondroitin sulfate is a preferred GAG. Chondroitin sulfate is the most abundant glycosaminoglycan in articular cartilage and is also present in many other connective tissues in the body. Additionally, chondroitin sulfate competitively inhibits degradative enzymes that degrade connective tissues under conditions of abnormal, excessive inflammation. Chondroitin sulfate is a polymer composed of repeating units of glucuronic acid and sulfated galactosamine. [Lester M. Morrison, M. D. and O. Arne Schjeide, Ph.D., Coronary Heart Disease and the Mucopolysaccharides (Glycosaminoglycans) 12 (1974); Philip C. Champe and Richard A. Harvey, Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews: Biochemistry, 148-50 (2.sup.nd ed. 1994)]. One of ordinary skill in the art understands that chondroitin sulfate must have at least two, and potentially many, of these repeating units of glucuronic acid and sulfated galactosamine.

FIG. 1 provides a detailed description of the biosynthetic pathway for the creation of GAGs, such as chondroitin sulfate. In addition, the present invention may include fragments of GAGs, such as fragments of chondroitin sulfate. One of ordinary skill in the art at the time the invention understands that “fragments of glycosaminoglycans” are groups of saccharides that constitute less than two repeating units of the glycosaminoglycan. Hence, it is understood that fragments of these substances would be composed of groups of saccharides that constitute fewer than two of the repeating units of the respective polymer.

For example, one of ordinary skill in the art understands that fragments of chondroitin sulfate are molecules composed of the saccharides that comprise the repeating units of chondroitin sulfate, but that are present in groups of less than the two repeating units described above. Thus, a molecule composed of a glucuronic acid and sulfated galactosamine would constitute a fragment of chondroitin sulfate. Indeed, there are eight different disaccharide structures that may constitute fragments of chondroitin sulfate. [Timothy. E. Hardingham and Amanda J. Fosang, Proteoglycans: Many Forms and Many Functions, FASEB J., 6:861-862 (1992)].

Other naturally occurring glycosaminoglycans may be used in this invention, for example, hyaluronic acid. Also, fragments of the glycosaminoglycans may also be utilized. A person of ordinary skill in the art understands the terms “fragments of chondroitin,” “fragments of chondroitin sulfate,” “fragments of chondroitin salts,” “fragments of glycosaminoglycan” and “chondroitin sulfate fragments,” and further understands them to mean groups of saccharides (or salts thereof) that constitute less than two repeating units of the glycosaminoglycan.

One of skill would expect that fragments of chondroitin sulfate, for example, would have the same utility as chondroitin sulfate itself. Chondroitin sulfate is broken down into smaller units within the body, and that it is reformulated in the production of cartilage and other connective tissue. Therefore, it is understood that the body utilizes fragments of chondroitin sulfate in the same manner as it utilizes chondroitin sulfate itself. The same is true with respect to “fragments of chondroitin,” “fragments of chondroitin salts,” and “fragments of glycosaminoglycan.” Each of chondroitin, chondroitin salts and other glycosaminoglycans, if ingested, is broken down by the body and reformulated in the production of cartilage and other connective tissue. Therefore, the body utilizes fragments of chondroitin in the same manner as it utilizes chondroitin itself, utilizes fragments of chondroitin salts in the same manner as it utilizes chondroitin salts, and utilizes fragments of glycosaminoglycans in the same manner as it utilizes glycosaminoglycans.

Moreover, it is intended that the term GAG can extend to any composition of matter that is insubstantially different from the GAGs as above-described. An example of such a GAG-like compound that is within the scope of the present invention is pentosan polysulfate (PPS) as well as salts thereof such as calcium-derived PPS and sodium PPS. Accordingly, a preferred GAG-like compound that may be used in the compositions of the present invention is PPS.

PPS is a semi-synthetic polysulfated xylan that is a sulfated form of a compound extracted from beechwood hemicellulose consisting of repeating units of (1-4) linked .beta.-D-xylano-pyranoses. More specifically, PPS is produced by extracting these hemicellulose compounds via a series of chemical reactions from the wood, and then adding numerous sulfate groups to the purified polysaccharide chains. This process results in low molecular weight linear polysaccharide chains that carry numerous negatively charged sulfate groups. PPS is a semi-synthetic heparinoid that is considered an oversulfated form of a GAG.

There are several forms of PPS that display the above-described activities. Sodium PPS and a calcium-derived PPS (called CAPPS) may both be used to accomplish the functions of PPS. Each of these forms of PPS exhibit GAG-like activity, and will hereinafter be referred to as GAG-like compounds.

Pentosan's mechanism of action can be summarized as follows:

1. Anti-inflammatory activities through stabilization and improvement of micro-circulation in the inflamed tissues and through anti-Complement effects (decreases the release of the humoral mediators of inflammation called the Complement cascade).

2. Inhibition of chemotaxis of granulocytes, which are white blood cells that contribute to inflammation.

3. Stimulatory effect on proteoglycan synthesis.

4. Stimulatory effects on hyaluronic acid synthesis by synovial fibroblasts.

5. Potent inhibition of catabolic enzymes including, human granulocyte elastase (noncompetitive inhibition), hyaluronidase (competitive inhibition), chondroitin-4-sulfatase and N-acetyl-glucosaminidase at concentrations much more lower than that of NSAIDs.

Other synthetic or semi-synthetic glycosaminoglycans or glycosaminoglycan-like compounds, such as polysulfated glycosaminoglycans, may be used in this invention.

Diacerein, a recently recognized organic compound found in plants of the genus Cassia has anti-inflammatory effects through inhibition of interleukin-1B consequently collagenase production in articular cartilage is reduced. It reduces the fibrinolytic activity of synovial fibroblasts as well. It also dose-dependently inhibits chemotaxis (attraction of white blood cells) and superoxide anion production (this is one of the “toxic oxygen species” or “free radicals”). These harmful compounds occur spontaneously in the body, especially during destructive inflammation. Diacerein has analgesic and antipyretic activities. It reduces the breakdown of chondroitin-4-sulfate resulting in an increase in the ratio of chondroitin-4-sulfate to chondroitin-6-sulfate. (This ratio is pathologically decreased in degenerating cartilage.) It mildly increases prostaglandin synthesis, which allows it to have protective effects on the gastric mucosa.

S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) is an important endogenous compound present throughout the body, and taking part in a great number of biologic reactions such as transsulfation reactions. In this role it is an important reactant in the synthesis of many structural components of connective tissues, including proteins and proteoglycans. Thus, SAMe has significant anabolic effects which would enhance the actions of other anabolic agents. SAMe also has anti-inflammatory effects by virtue of its antioxidant action.

SAMe is compound synthesized in the body from adenosine triphosphate (“ATP”) and methionine (FIG. 2). It is present in many tissues, including the central nervous system. The primary CNS function of SAMe is to donate methyl groups in the reactions synthesizing various crucial compounds, including neurotransmitters and phospholipids. For example, SAMe facilitates the conversion of phosphatidylethanolamine to phosphatidylcholine, which forms part of the inner, lipid layer of the plasma membrane. In so doing, SAMe increases membrane fluidity and enhances effectiveness of receptor/ligand binding. [Champe and Harvey, Biochemistry, 1994; Stramentinoli, G., “Pharmacologic Aspects of S-Adenosylmethionine,” American J. Med., 83(5A):35 (1987); Baldessarini, F., “Neuropharmacology of S-Adenosyl Methionine,” American J. Med., 83(5A):95 (1987); Camey, M., “Neuropharmacology of S-Adenosyl Methionine,” Clin. Neuropharmacol., 2(3):235 (1986); Janicak, P., “S-Adenosylmethionine in Depression,” Alabama J. Med. Sci. 25(3):306 (1988)]. These functions may also pertain to other methyl donors such as betaine (trimethylglycine), 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, folic acid, and dimethylglycine. [Champe and Harvey, Biochemistry, 1994].

Superoxide dismutase is an enzyme present naturally in the tissues of animals and plants, which has recently been investigated as an agent in the management of inflammation. It acts by intercepting toxic oxygen radicals in the intracellular space during destructive inflammatory processes. It does not inhibit prostaglandin biosynthesis, but stops the overproduction of prostaglandins resulting from destructive inflammation. Some of its effects include inhibition of edema formation and inhibition of acute signs of inflammation and the secondary articular changes (stiffness and calcification) in adjuvant-induced arthritis. Having no analgesic effects, it does not contribute to the overuse of the affected joints that eventually leads to more damage of the articular cartilage, as NSAIDs can. Also, it has no adverse effects on the cardiovascular, central nervous or endocrine systems. FIG. 3 provides a simplified diagram of the function of SOD.

L-ergothioneine is an intracellular antioxidant naturally occurring in plants and animals, but not synthesized in human bodies: it comes only from dietary sources. The antioxidant properties of L-ergothionein appear to be related to its ability to scavenge reactive oxygen species (free radicals), chelate various metallic cations, activate antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase (SeGPx) and manganese superoxide dismutase (Mn SOD) and to inhibit superoxide-generating enzymes such as NADPH-Cytochrome C reductase, and to affect the oxidation of various hemoproteins such as hemoglobin and myoglobin. Because all body tissues depend on these two oxygen carrier molecules, this characteristic is extremely beneficial. [Brummel, M. C., “In Search of a Physiological Function for L-ergothioneine,” Med. Hypotheses, 18(4):351-70 (December 1985); Brummel, M. C., “In Search of a Physiological Function for L-ergothioneine,—II,” Med. Hypotheses, 30(1):39-48 (September 1989); Han, J. S., “Effects of Various Chemical Compounds on Spontaneous and Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Reversion in Strain TA104 of Salmonella typhimurium,” Mutat. Res., 266(2):77-84 (April 1992); Arduini, A., “Possible Mechanism of Inhibition of Nitrite-Induced Oxidation of Oxyhemoglobin by Ergothioneine and Uric Acid,” Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 294(2):398-402 (May 1992)].

Collagen Type II also has beneficial effects that help maintain the normal balance between anabolism and catabolism. Specifically, connective tissue diseases may result from autoimmune processes, in which the immune system attacks and catabolizes the individual's own connective tissues as if it were a “foreign invader.” Oral administration of collagen Type II can desensitize the immune system, preventing further attack and normalizing immune responses in these individuals. This decreases catabolic processes in the connective tissues and maximize anabolism. Ingestion of collagen type II presents this molecule to the immune cells in the gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT, a.k.a., Peyer's patches). Interactions between the collagen molecule and specific cells within the GALT activates mobile immune cells called T suppressor cells. These cells, in turn, moderate the destructive immune reaction against the individual's own collagen type II (in connective tissues).

Compounds in the tetracycline family include tetracycline, doxycycline, tetracycline analogs, and “tetracycline-like” compounds, and have been used therapeutically for their anti-microbial effects. Current research has focused on “tetracycline-like” compounds which possess insignificant antimicrobial effects, but with anti-catabolic effects. Specifically, “tetracycline-like” compounds are polycyclic compounds that inhibit tissue metalloproteinases which degrade extracellular matrix components including collagen and proteoglycans yet have insubstantial anti-microbial effects. This function of these compounds, as well as other compounds in the tetracycline family, may be related to the ability of these compounds to chelate calcium and zinc ions. For example, doxycycline has been shown to inhibit collagenase activity in articular cartilage.

Certain lipid extracts, termed nonsaponifiable, of avocado (genus Persea, especially P. americana) and the soybean (Glycine max) have also been studied for their beneficial effects on connective tissues. These nonsaponifiable compounds are that part of the plant lipids that do not undergo saponification, i.e., they do not react with alkali to form a soap. There are many such compounds, and any particular avocado extract may contain any number. Examples include fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K), steroids such as phytoestrogens, sterols (bioflavonoids) and volatile essentials oils (terpenes such as menthol, camphor, lycopene, gibberellic acid, limonene, cinnamaldehyde, carotenoids, and ubiquinone, also known as coenzyme Q.) [Mathews, C. K. & van Holde, K. E. Biochemistry, 2.sup.nd ed., The Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co., Inc., 1996, p. 691.]

The avocado/soybean unsaponifiables (ASU) have been used in Europe under the trade name Piascledine and have been used to treat osteoarthritis and other forms of arthritis [Thiers, M. H., “Unsaponifiable constituents of avocado and soya oils. Treatment of certain forms of arthralgia,” J. Med. Lyon 53(222):195-8 (February 1972) (article in French)], as well as soft-tissue inflammatory conditions [Trevoux, R., “Unsaponifiable fractions of the avocado and soybean in gynecology,” J. Bynecol. Obstet. Biol. Reprod. 6(1):99-105 (January 1977) (article in French); Lamaud, M. E., et al., “Biochemical modifications of connective tissue induced by the non-saponifiables of avocado and soybean oils administered percutaneously in the ‘hairless’ rat,” Pathol. Biol. 26(5):269-74 (May-June 1978) (article in French)]. The mechanism of action of this compound is to stimulate chondrocyte expression of TGF (transforming growth factor) beta 1, TGF beta 2 and plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (“PAI-1”). By increasing PAI-1, ASU blocks the cascade that leads to metalloprotease activation [Boumediene K., et al., “Avocado/soya unsaponifiables enhance the expression of transforming growth factor beta 1 and beta 2 in cultured articular chondrocytes,” Arthritis Rheum. 42(1): 148-56 (January 1999)]. ASU mixtures also reduce the spontaneous production of stromelysins, IL-6, interleukin-8 (IL-8) and prostaglandin E2 by chondrocytes. Additionally, ASUs decrease the effects of IL-1, and thereby reduce chondrocyte and synoviocyte production of collagenase. [Henrotin, Y. E., et al., “Effects of three avocado/soybean unsaponifiable mixtures on metalloproteinases, cytokines and prostaglandin E2 production by human articular chondrocytes,” Clin. Rheumatol. 17(1): 31-9 (1998).]

TGF beta 1 and 2 are members of a family of homologous polypeptidecytokines. These locally-acting hormones can have paracrine or autocrine effects and are made by a variety of cell types, including lymphocytes, endothelial cells and macrophages. TGF beta has varied effects in different tissues; it generally inhibits epithelial cell metabolism. In connective tissues, however, it has been shown to be an indirect mitogen for fibroblasts and other cells of mesenchymal origin. It also can stimulate cellular production of fibronectin and collagen, and decrease protease activity, resulting in a net increase in matrix production. [Cotran, R. F., Kumar, V. and Robbins, S. L., Eds., Pathologic Basis of Disease, 5.sup.th ed., Saunders, 1994, pp. 40-42.]

Stromelysins are a subtype of proteinases that act on a variety of extracellular matrix components, including proteoglycans, laminin, fibronectin, and collagen. Stromelysins are produced by fibroblasts, synoviocytes, and macrophages, among other cell types, under the influence of cytokines such interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor alpha Interleukins and prostaglandins are among the many mediators of inflammation. Reductions in levels of all of these compounds result in a decrease in pain and swelling, which are hallmarks of inflammation.

The fat-soluble vitamins present in ASU mixtures are necessary for growth, and augment the anabolic effects of TGF-beta. Because they stimulate TGF beta and also decrease degradative enzymes, as explained above, ASU mixtures can be said to have both anabolic and anti-catabolic effects. Although some of the effects of ASUs overlap the effects of other compounds in the present invention, ASUs contribute unique properties to the group of compounds and provide very beneficial effects when used in combination with those other compounds. For example, while glucosamine and ASUs both stimulate anabolic processes in connective tissue cells, these compounds have different cellular mechanisms of action. Glucosamine acts in part through protein kinase C, while the effect of ASUs, as stated above, is through transforming growth factor. Similarly, chondroitin and ASUs have inhibitory effects of IL-1. ASUs, however, inhibit the plasmin cascade, while chondroitin decreases activation of the complement cascade. Osteoarthritis is a complex disease involving interplay of many cytokines at the cellular level. Because the different compounds of the present invention act on different cytokines, they will have synergistic effects when used in appropriate combinations.

In placebo controlled, double blind trials, ASUs have been shown effective in reducing symptoms of osteoarthritis [Maheu, E., et al., “Symptomatic efficacy of avocado/soybean unsaponifiables in the treatment of osteoarthritis,” Arthritis Rheum. 41(1): 81-91 (January 1998); Blotman, F., et al., “Efficacy and safety of avocado/soybean unsaponifiables in the treatment of symptomatic osteoarthritis,” Rev. Rheum. Engl. Ed. 64(12): 825-34 (December 1997)]. In these studies, side effects in the intervention groups were similar to those seen in the placebo groups, indicating that ASUs are safe and well tolerated substances. ASUs as used in this invention can include any or all unsaponifiable lipids and/or combinations thereof.

Examples of components of ASUs include but are not limited to: limonene, beta carotene, phyloquinone, and giberellic acid. As explained above, ASUs can include any of a number of classes of compounds including but not limited to fat soluble vitamins, steroids, sterols and volatile essentials oils, or any combinations thereof. For instance, the avocado/soybean unsaponifiables (ASU) can include one or more phytosterols, such as campesterol, stigmasterol, dihydro-brassisterol, and Beta-sitosterol.

The invention includes, moreover, compositions which contain one avocado/soybean extract or mixtures or combinations of such extracts (more than one ASU). There are many such combinations and all are intended to be included within the present invention.

Various formulations of the present invention may include one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables in a variety of forms or amounts. For instance, in some embodiments, one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables may be included in a composition so that they are standardized to about 30% sterol. In some embodiments, avocado/soybean unsaponifiables may be included in a composition in approximately a 2-1 ratio of soybean unsaponifiables to avocado unsaponifiables. In some embodiments, one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables may be a solid at room temperature and a liquid at human body temperature. In some embodiments, one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables may be combined with one or more excipients or carriers to create a powder.

The compounds of the present invention have several advantages over existing therapies for connective tissue disorders, such as excellent safety profiles. This is in part related to the fact that these compounds occur normally in the body and in various foods. Another characteristic shared by the compounds is tendency for a slow onset of action. Pharmaceuticals, such as NSAIDs, tend to cause sudden changes in the symptoms of disease. The endogenous compounds in the present invention work more slowly, by normalizing structures and functions within the body. While this action is beneficial, it does mean that symptoms will typically not be relieved immediately. For this reason, an analgesic is included as an optional component of the compositions of the present invention. The analgesic is to be chosen from the group of analgesic compounds that have been shown to have minimal side effects at therapeutic doses, and also to have minimal negative effects on connective tissue synthesis, as corticosteroid drugs and many NSAIDs have been shown to have. The analgesic that may be included in the composition of the present invention therefore is a nonsteroidal analgesic that does not have anti-inflammatory effects. In other words, the analgesic is a nonsteroidal drug that is not an NSAID. Examples of the analgesics of the present invention include acetaminophen and tramadol. Except as discussed below, the preferred analgesic of the present invention is acetaminophen.

Acetaminophen is an analine derivative analgesic and antipyretic compound working centrally through reversible inhibition of the enzyme cyclo-oxygenase in the central nervous system. Acetaminophen also blocks the peripheral pain impulse generation in nerve endings throughout the body. It has been used extensively for symptomatic pain relief. The relief of pain is beneficial for more than the obvious humane reasons. Since there are also important links between the emotional centers of the brain and the immune system, the relief of pain, and the resulting elevation in mood, has beneficial effects on inflammation and the many other processes that are modulated by the immune system. Although it blocks cyclooxygenase activity, acetaminophen has very little anti-inflammatory activity. Therefore, acetaminophen does not inhibit connective tissue anabolism, as NSAIDs and corticosteroids do, and because it has minimal side effects at therapeutic doses, it is an ideal analgesic agent in the present invention. Another advantage to including a safe analgesic in the present invention is that it will increase the likelihood that patient compliance would be high, i.e., that patients would continue taking the preparations long enough for disease-modifying effects to occur. Studies of isolated chondroprotective agents often have a high rate of drop-out in the early weeks of therapy due to patient perception that the agent is not working. With the addition of an analgesic, patients would be more inclined to continue therapy.

Cats are sensitive to acetaminophen because they do not metabolize it effectively (poor hepatic conjugation with glucuronic acid and subsequent depletion of glutathione occurs) [Goodman, A. and Goodman, L., The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 7.sup.th ed., MacMillan Publishing Co., 1985, pp. 692-95; Ahrens, F., Pharmacology, Williams & Wilkins, 1996, pp. 174-75]. Accordingly, acetaminophen is not recommended for use in cats.

Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM, or dimethylsulfone) is an organic sulfur compound belonging to a class of chemicals known as sulfones. It occurs naturally in some primitive plants and is present in small amounts in many foods and beverages. Researchers have suggested that MSM has anti-inflammatory effects.

The present invention comprises novel combinations of anabolic agents, anti-catabolic agents and antioxidant agents that maximize beneficial, anabolic effects (healing) and minimize any potential negative effects. In so doing, the present invention provides novel combinations of these agents and anti-oxidant agents, for the protection, treatment and repair of connective tissues in humans and animals.

These compounds have a variety of beneficial effects on animal and human connective tissues, and, because they function via a variety of mechanisms, work well in combination with each other. Although each compound has a number of functions, they can be roughly grouped as: (1) anabolic agents, including glucosamine, SAMe, AA, and ASUs, which promote growth processes in the body; (2) anti-catabolic agents, such as chondroitin sulfate, pentosan sulfate, collagen type II, tetracyclines, diacerin and ASUs, which inhibit destructive or catabolic processes; and (3) antioxidants, such as SOD, and L-ergothioneine which prevent tissue damage by scavenging toxic oxygen species (free radicals). Naturally, some compounds, such as ASUs, could be placed in more than one group, by virtue of their overlapping functions. The present invention establishes that combinations of these compounds would work well. In addition, an analgesic could optionally be added to any of the individual compounds recited above or to a combination of them to provide relief from pain. Acetaminophen is the analgesic of choice because it does not have powerful anti-inflammatory effects and therefore does not interfere with healing of connective tissue. It also has minimal side effects at therapeutic doses, unlike NSAIDs which may cause gastrointestinal ulceration or poor renal perfusion even at therapeutic doses. Thus, the present invention consists of various combinations of two or more of the following agents: AA, glucosamine, chondroitin sulfate, pentosan, diacerin, S-adenosylmethionine, superoxide dismutase, L-ergothionein, collagen type II, tetracycline-like compounds, one or more ASUs and, optionally, one or more analgesics, e.g., acetaminophen. Examples include, but are not limited to such combinations as: two anabolic agents (e.g., AA and glucosamine); an anabolic agent and an anti-catabolic agent (e.g., AA and pentosan); an anti-catabolic and an antioxidant (e.g., tetracyclicline and superoxide dismutase); or combinations of more than two agents (e.g., glucosamine, SAMe and AA) or SAMe, ASUs, acetaminophen and diacerin. Examples of specific compounds that may be present in ASU extracts include but are not limited to: limonene, beta carotene, ubiquinone, and undecaprenol phosphate.

The following table shows possible combinations of pairs of the compounds discussed above. The letter “X” marks novel combinations of compounds that form the novel compositions of the present invention. The invention also includes combinations of three or more agents of the following compounds in the combinations shown on the table:

Glucosamine

Chondroitin

SAMe

Pentosan

Superoxide Dismutase (SOD)

L-ergothioneine

Collagen Type II

Diacerin

Arachadonic Acid

Tetracycline like compounds

One or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables.

Analgesic, e.g., acetaminophen

Methylsulfanylmethane (MSM)

As explained above, examples of desired combinations are marked by X. For example, the first X in the first row means a combination of glucosamine and L-ergothioneine or glucosamine and diacerin. The compositions of the present invention additionally comprise any aggregation or addition of the combinations marked by X in any given row or column. For example, the compositions disclosed in the first row include combinations of glucosamine plus L-ergothioneine plus diacerin, or glucosamine plus diacerin plus tetracycline-like compounds or glucosamine plus L-ergothioneine plus diacerin plus AA plus tetracycline-like compounds, and so on. Examples of compositions disclosed in the column designated “Collagen Type II” would include combinations of collagen Type II plus SAMe plus pentosan, or collagen Type II plus SAMe plus pentosan plus superoxide dismutase plus L-ergothioneine, and so on. Examples of compositions disclosed in the column designated “ASU” would include combinations of one or more ASUs plus glucosamine, or one or more ASUs plus SAMe plus pentosan, or one or more ASUs plus collagen Type II plus SAMe plus pentosan plus superoxide dismutase plus L-ergothioneine, and so on. Similarly, the table shows that an analgesic, e.g., acetaminophen, can be combined with any other compound listed in the table either singly or in any combination. Superoxide Tetracycline Analgesic Dismutase L- Collagen Arachadonic like e.g., (SOD) Ergothioneine Type II Disceria Acid compounds ASU acetominophen Glucosamine X X X X X X Chondroitin X X X X X X SAMe X X X X X X X X Pentosan X X X X X X X X superoxide X X X X X X X dismutase (SOD) L-ergothioneine X X X X X X Collagen X X X X X Type II Disceria X X X X Arachadonic X X X Acid Tetracycline X X like compounds ASU X

Certain combinations of the above agents have been investigated, and a novel response in several combinations was documented. The effects of certain combinations of chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine, SAMe, arachidonic acid, collagen, pentosan, and superoxide dismutase were studied in cultures of adult bovine cartilage cells in different experiments (see example 2). Certain combinations had an inhibitory effect (hypometabolic) in this particular study. Both stimulatory and inhibitory novel interactions could be beneficial under various disease states. For example, a hypermetabolic state is part of the pathogenesis of some diseases. In such diseases, an inhibitory (hypometabolic) response would be beneficial to the individual. Future studies are planned to investigate the effects of a range of concentrations in the agents studied under various experimental models. Note that both increases and decreases in biosynthetic activity are novel interactions and could be beneficial to organisms under selected circumstances. For example, many researchers currently believe that osteoarthritis has a hypermetabolic component, especially in the early stages of pathogenesis. Researchers are divided as to whether treatment should focus on agents that stimulate cartilage matrix production, or agents that are inhibitory and therefore make the cartilage environment more hypometabolic, which in turn could have a stabilizing effect on the cartilage tissue.

The compositions of the present invention may be administered via any route, including but not limited to intramuscularly, intravenously, orally, subcutaneously, rectally, topically, transcutaneously, intranasally, and intra-articularly, sublingually, intraperitoneally.

Also, any salt of any of the present compounds may be used to aid in absorption, e.g., glucosamine HCl, glucosamine sulfate, glucosamine phosphate, sodium chondroitin sulfate, calcium chondroitin sulfate, potassium chondroitin sulfate, etc. In addition, the compositions of the present invention can be given in all common dosage forms including extended release dosage forms, pills, tablets (such as chewable tablets), capsules (such as hard gelatin capsules, liquid-filled capsules, softgel capsules, etc.), creams, pastes, powders (such as scoops of powder), liquids, aerosols, extended release forms, injectables, etc. The compositions of the present invention may also be given in dosage forms such as sachets and treats.

The dosage ranges of the compositions of the present invention will vary depending upon the needs of the human or animal to which the compositions are administered. The frequency of dosage may also vary depending on the needs of the human or animal to which the compositions are administered.

For example, a combination of ASU, chondroitin sulfate (CS), and glucosamine (Gluc) may be administered to an animal such as a dog or horse. The composition may be administered to the animal daily (or every other day) at a specific dose (or varying dose) for an initial period, such as 2-4 weeks or 4-6 weeks. Individual dose regimens may vary by target subject. The dosage regimen for the initial period may be designed so that the active components achieve a steady state in the body fluids that bathe inflamed tissue in the animal. For example, during the initial period, daily dosages of the composition in powdered form may be administered to horses in the following amounts: horses under 600 pounds may be administered one scoop, horses between 600 and 1200 pounds may be administered two scoops, and horses over 1200 pounds may be administered 3 scoops. Some or all of the initial period may pass before a response to the composition is observed in the animal. For this reason, various formulations may be considered relatively slow-acting. Some subjects may respond sooner during the initial period of administration. Once a clinical response is observed, the amount and frequency of dosages may be reduced to a level that is intended to keep the subject comfortable. For example, a long term administration for horses may be ½ scoop, 1 scoop, and 1-2 scoops daily for horses weighing up to 600 pounds, 600-1200 pounds, and over 1200 pounds, respectively. Prior to and during strenuous exercise or an event that may affect inflammation of connective tissue in the animal, dosage may be increased in amount and/or frequency, e.g., to the initial administration level, for extra support. Also, if the animal's comfort level appears to decrease, the dosage and frequency may be increased, e.g., to the initial administration levels, for an additional period, such as 2-4 weeks, before reducing level and frequency again. Once consistent improvement at a particular dosage level has been observed, administration may be further reduced in frequency and/or amount, e.g., to half dosage and half frequency. A subject's dosage and frequency may be increased at any time as needed, e.g., on weekends or other times when the subject is more active, in order to provide extra support to the connective tissues as needed.

The combination of ASU, CS and Gluc may also be used for long-term treatments on normal subjects to help prevent and/or modulate an inflammatory incident.

The dosage ranges for the various components of the presently claimed compositions are as follows: Compound Daily Dose Glucosamine Total dose range: 25 mg to 15 g Or: 3-125 mg/kg for small or large animals or humans Small animal: 25 mg-3 g; or 3-125 mg/kg Human: 100 mg-4 g; or 3-125 mg/kg Large animal: 300 mg-15 g; or 3-125 mg/kg Chondroitin Total dose range: 15 mg-12 g sulfate Or: 1-75 mg/kg for small or large animals or humans Small animal: 15 mg-2 g; or 1-75 mg/kg Human: 75 mg-4 g; or 1-75 mg/kg Large animal: 300 mg-12 g; or 1-75 mg/kg SAMe Total dose range: 10 mg-8 g Small animal: 10 mg-1 g Human: 75 mg-3 g Large animal: 400 mg-8 g Pentosan Total dose range: 3 mg to 3 g Small animal: 3 mg-1 g Human: 50 mg-2 g Large animal: 100 mg-3 g Superoxide Total dose range: 3 mg to 6 g dismutase (each mg containing >3000 McCord - Fridovich units Small animal: 3 mg-2 g Human: 5 mg-3 g Large animal: 50 mg-6 g L-ergothioneine Total dose range: 50 mg to 25 g Small animal: 50 mg-10 g Human: 50 mg-15 g Large animal: 100 mg-25 g Collagen Type II Total dose range: 0.1 mg to 10 g Small animal: 0.1 mg-10 g Human: 0.1 mg-7.5 g Large animal: 1.0 mg-10 g Diacerin Total dose range: 5 mg to 5 g Small animal: 5 mg-1 g Human: 20 mg-3 g Large animal: 50 mg-5 g Arachadonic acid Total dose range: 10 mg to 12 g Small animal: 10 mg-3 g Human: 10 mg-5 g Large animal: 50 mg-12 g Tetracyclines Total dose range: 1.0 mg to 2 g Small animal: 1.0 mg-1 g Human: 2 mg-1.5 g Large animal: 50 mg-2 g Avocado/soybean Total dose range: 5 mg to 5 gram unsaponifiables Or: 0.5-25 mg/kg for small or large animals or humans Small animal: 5 mg to 1000 mg; 0.5-25 mg/kg Human: 25 mg to 1500 mg; or 0.5-25 mg/kg Large animal: 100 mg to 5 grams; or 0.5-25 mg/kg Analgesic, e.g., Total dose range: 4 mg to 10 grams acetaminophen Small animal: (excluding cats): 4 mg to 1000 mg Human: 100 mg to 4 grams Large animal: 100 mg to 10 grams

Doses are designed to cover the spectrum of body weights of small animals to large animals, with humans in the middle. The following examples are illustrative and do not in any way limit the present invention. In particular, physiological concentration ranges, as determined by the best data available to the inventors, were used.

EXAMPLE 1

In our preliminary investigations, surgical instability was induced in the stifle joint of New Zealand white rabbits by modification of the Hulth technique. Post-operatively, animals were exercised for 1 hour daily. Experimental dietary formulas were evaluated for their cartilage stabilizing effect. The standard Harland (Teklad) rabbit diet (control); a standard diet also containing a 2% fungal oil containing 40% AA by weight (Arasco); and a standard diet containing also arachidonic acid and glucosamine/chondroitin were investigated. At 16 weeks, the medial femoral condyles of all rabbits were removed and cartilage degeneration quantitatively evaluated with a modified Mankin histological-histochemica-1 grading system with safranin-O stained slides. Cartilage from all joints with surgical instability exhibited varying degrees of macroscopic degenerative lesions. Our preliminary results indicated that adding arachidonic acid to glucosamine/chondroitin sulfate has the potential to produce a novel interaction in cartilage. This novel interaction has the potential to have a cartilage modulating effect.

EXAMPLE 2

Procedure:

Articular cartilage was resected from human or animal joints aseptically and placed into a large petri dish in a small amount of DMEM/F-12 or F-12. The tissue was diced to 1-2 mm dimensions and transferred to a small culture flask containing 20 mL DMEM or F-12+400 u/mL collagenase. The flask was placed on the shaker and incubated overnight.

The cell digest was repeatedly aspirated to increase release of cells. The cell digest was then placed into a 50 mL sterile centrifuge tube and centrifuged in the Beckman at 1000 RPM for 10 minutes. The medium was discarded by pipette and fresh DMEM/F-12 containing 1% FCS added. Depending on the size of the pellet, about 2040 mL medium was added. Cell counts were determined by haemocytometer and the digest made up to a concentration of 100,000 cells/0.2 mL.

GAG Synthesis:

To conduct GAG synthesis, 0.2 mL was aliquoted into each well of a 96 well plate using an 8 channel pipetter and the cells allowed to attach for 24 hours. The media was removed and 0.3 mL of fresh 1% FCS media added for 2-3 days. On the day of the experiment, the media was removed and the experimental solutions containing 35-sulfate isotope were added. The incubation was continued for 4 hours. Termination: at the end of the incubation period, the labeling media was removed, the cell layer was rinsed repeatedly with cold 0.3 mL DMEM or F-12 (about 5 times.), and the cell layer was frozen for counting.

Counting of 96 Well Plates:

The cell layer for both the synthesis experiments were heated at 50 degrees after adding 100 ul 1 N NaOH for a period of 2 hours. 200 ul scintillant was added and the plates were placed in the counter. The data was expressed as CPM/100,000 cells. Indv. Agents: Agents Evaulation CPM/ Sum Combined Difference Agent 100,000 cells (CPM) (CPM) (CPM) CHSO4-L 64 AA 70 134 18 −116 ChS04-H 50 AA 70 120 81 −39 Glu-H 117 AA 70 187 16 −177 1% Sam 123 10Paleos 86 209 62 −147 1% Sam 123 1Paleos 74 197 80 −117 3% Sam 42 1Paleos 74 116 100 −16 3% Sam 42 10Paleos 86 128 83 −45 3% Sam 42 Collagen 118 160 90 −70 3% Sam 42 AA 70 112 104 −8 AA 70 10Pentos 76 146 106 −40 Collagen 70 10Paleos 86 156 82 −74 Collagen 118 10Pentos 76 194 65 −129 Collagen 118 10 Paleos 86 204 77 −127 ChS0₄ = Chondroitin AA = Arachadonic Acid SAMe = S-adenosylmethionine Paleos = SOD Collagen = Collagen Pentos = Pentosan H = High concentration L = Low concentration

In this model, at the concentrations studied, the representative combinations had an inhibitory (hypometabolic) effect in this particular study. This hypometabolic effect could be beneficial under various disease states, indeed both stimulatory and inhibitory novel interactions could be beneficial under various disease states. For example, a hypermetabolic state is part of the pathogenesis of some diseases. In such diseases, an inhibitory (hypometabolic) response would be beneficial to the individual. Future studies are planned to investigate the effects of a range of concentrations in the agents studied under various experimental models. Note that both increases and decreases in biosynthetic activity are novel interactions and could be beneficial to organisms under selected circumstances. For example, many researchers currently believe that osteoarthritis has a hypermetabolic component, especially in the early stages of pathogenesis. Researchers are divided as to whether treatment should focus on agents that stimulate cartilage matrix production, or agents that are inhibitory and therefore make the cartilage environment more hypometabolic, which in turn could have a stabilizing effect on the cartilage tissue.

EXAMPLE 3

A 4 year old child has juvenile rheumatoid arthritis in which the immune system inappropriately targets endogenous connective tissues with antibodies against native collagen type II. The resulting inflammation and degradation of cartilage causes pain and dysfunction in the synovial joints. Present treatments include corticosteroids which non-selectively suppress the immune system, thus leaving the body vulnerable to infectious disease, or methotrexate, which inhibits DNA synthesis, repair, and cellular replication, thus affecting not only the immune system but also intestinal mucosa, and the bone marrow. This child is given 2 mg of collagen type II daily, and SOD 10 mg daily. The collagen decreases the inappropriate immune attack, and the SOD inactivates destructive free radicals that damage cells. By preventing cellular damage, the SOD helps maximize the normal function of joint tissue cells. This combination has no harmful side effects at therapeutic doses and is a beneficial addition to existing therapies for rheumatoid arthritis.

EXAMPLE 4

A 6 year old thoroughbred race horse has neutrophilic inflammation of the carpus. In this condition, trauma to the tissues of the joint injures cells and therefore results in liberation of cytokines which attract large numbers of neutrophils into the synovial space. This response is beneficial in cases of sepsis, but in non-septic conditions the neutrophils provide no useful service to the animal. Indeed, because neutrophils produce various degradative compounds, including superoxide molecules, their presence in the joint contributes to a vicious cycle of inflammation, tissue damage, and increased inflammation. Currently this condition is treated with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, which suppress prostaglandin synthesis and therefore have many side effects. This horse is given a mixture of diacerin 100 mg, pentosan 200 mg and SAMe, 1000 mg The diacerin and pentosan both inhibit chemotaxis (the attraction of white blood cells into the affected area) and thus reduce the numbers of neutrophils in the joint. Additionally, pentosan stimulates the synthesis of synovial fluid and thus supports normal function of the joint. Diacerin inhibits superoxide production; since superoxide production is one of the mechanisms through which neutrophils have their harmful effects, this action of diacerin is obviously beneficial. SAMe supports the structure and function of cell membranes, and therefore helps repair injured joint tissue cells thus blocking the events that start the harmful inflammation. This combination has no harmful side effects at therapeutic doses and is a great improvement over existing therapies.

EXAMPLE 5

A 47 year-old woman has severe knee osteoarthritis. Currently she requires large doses of NSAIDs to control her symptoms. Although her orthopedic surgeon has recommended taking glucosamine/chondroitin sulfate, she has been reluctant to do so because these compounds are extracted from animal tissues and the patient is a strict vegetarian. Instead she takes diacerein 25 mg and ASU 250 mg, and 500 mg of acetaminophen daily. The diacerin inhibits chemotaxis and thereby reduces inflammation in the knee joint. The ASU increases TGF beta 1 and 2, stimulating repair of damaged joint tissues. The acetaminophen causes rapid analgesia, reducing the patient's symptoms without adversely affecting cartilage metabolism and without risk of gastrointestinal ulceration. As a result of the reduction in pain, the patient decides to add a 15 minute walk to her daily schedule. The controlled exercise further improves her physical and mental state.

EXAMPLE 6

A 5 year old Jersey dairy cow is diagnosed with severe osteoarthritis following an episode of fever and synovitis attributed to Lyme disease. This animal is the source of the owner's family milk supply and the owner wishes to treat the lameness with compounds that are “natural,” i.e., compounds that normally occur in plants and animal bodies, rather than pursuing more traditional solutions such as 1) culling the animal 2) using non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or 3) using steroids. The animal is treated with ASU 900 mg, SAMe 600 mg and glucosamine 500 mg daily. This approach is an improvement over existing options for several reasons. Because the compounds are natural components of plants and animal bodies with documented wide margins of safety, there is less concern over metabolites secreted in the milk. Because the compounds are available orally, and are active in small amounts, they are easy to administer to the animal in feed. The combined effect of the three compounds is to reduce inflammation, and pain, to support normal function, and to stimulate healing of connective tissues.

Various additional examples illustrate the effect of various compositions in inhibiting or otherwise modulating the markers of inflammation and pain, such as COX-2. In several of these examples, various formulations were designed to reduce the markers of inflammation and pain, but not to eliminate those markers entirely due to the possibility of adverse side effects. Thus, one goal achieved by some embodiments described in the following examples was the reduction of the inflammation and pain markers to approximately control levels, or slightly above or below control levels.

In several of the following Examples, the ASU that was used (i.e., ASU-NMX 1000™, Nutramax Laboratories Inc., Edgewood, Md. USA) was dissolved and diluted in 100% ethanol (Sigma-Aldrich) to achieve the desired concentrations for use in the particular experiment. The concentrations used in the studies were based on the minimum phytosterol content of the ASU composition. The desired concentration of ASU for use in a specific experiment was first determined by incubating bovine chondrocytes (5×10⁵ cells/well) for 72 hrs with: (i) control media alone or (ii) ASU at concentrations of 25, 8.3, 2.7, 0.9, and 0.3 μg/ml. Cells were activated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 20 ng/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) for 24 hrs, and cellular supernatants were analyzed for secreted PGE-2 and nitrite concentrations. There was no significant effect on PGE-2 and nitrite levels at 0.3 or 0.9 μg/ml. At 2.7 μg/ml, there was a slight suppression of PGE-2 and nitrite levels. The highest levels of suppression were found to be between 8.3 and 25 μg/mL. The ASU concentrations used in these Examples were selected based on the above data and on reported clinical dosage and previous published in vitro data for ASU.

In Examples 7-11, the following terms and definitions will be used:

Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is a protein that functions as an enzyme and specifically regulates the production of certain chemical messengers called prostaglandins (PGE-2). This PGE-2 molecule causes the pain and swelling of inflammation observed in arthritic conditions. When COX-2 activity is blocked, inflammation is reduced. COX-2 is active only at the site of inflammation.

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE-2) is a chemical messenger that belongs to a group of hormone-like substances that participate in a wide range of body functions including inflammation. PGE-2 causes pain and swelling during inflammation.

p38: MAP kinase (MAPK) is also known as mitogen-activated protein kinase 14. MAP kinase p38 is involved in a signaling system that controls cellular responses to cytokines, stress and bacterial products like lipopolysaccharides (LPS).

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK): MAPK serine/threonine is a specific protein kinase that responds to extracellular stimuli and regulates various cellular activities including gene expression, proliferation, differentiation and function. It is involved in cell signaling and communication such as signaling pathways responsive to stimuli exemplified by physical stress and cytokines.

Cytokines are diverse proteins involved in cellular signaling and communication like hormones and neurotransmitters. They are critical to the functioning of both innate and adaptive immune response and play a major role in a variety of immunological, inflammatory and infectious diseases.

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) belongs to a superfamily of proteins called cytokines which induce death (necrosis) of tumor cells and possess a wide range of pro-inflammatory activity. TNF-α is multifunctional, and inhibiting its activity is beneficial in reducing the inflammation in inflammatory diseases including arthritis.

Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) is a protein belonging to the cytokine family produced by various cells, including chondrocytes, macrophages, and fibroblasts. It is a major regulator of inflammation. IL-1β raises body temperature and the production of other chemical mediators involved in inflammation and innate immunity.

Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is a soluble enzyme that controls the production of nitric oxide (NO) following exposure to cytokines and other stimulators. iNOS is important in inflammation and in defense against infection.

Chemokines are proteins that are produced by a variety of cells which have the ability to attract different cells to the site of inflammation and or injury and to help localize these cell in situ. Two examples of chemokines are interleukin-8 (IL-8) and monocyte chemotactic protein (MCP).

EXAMPLE 7 Regulation of Prostaglandin E-2 Production in IL-1β Activated Chondrocytes Propagated on Microcarrier Spinner Culture

The study of Example 7 was designed to evaluate whether chondrocytes propagated in microcarrier spinner culture can be activated by interleukin-1β (IL-1β) to produce prostaglandin E-2 (PGE-2); and whether this activation can be blocked by natural products known individually to have anti-inflammatory activity: Avocado Soybean Unsaponifiables (ASU), glucosamine (Glu), and chondroitin sulfate (CS).

Method: Canine chondrocytes (4×10³/cm²) seeded in collagen microcarrier beads were propagated in spinner culture for 14 days. They were next incubated with: media alone or the combination of ASU (NMX-1000™, 25 μg/mL), CS (TRH122®, 20 μg/mL) and Glu (FCHG49®, 10 μg/mL) for 24 hrs. The combination of ASU, Glu, and CS was supplied by Nutramax Laboratories, Inc. Cultures were then incubated with media alone or activated with IL-1β (10 ng/mL) at 37° C., 5% CO₂ for 24 hrs. The supernatant was assayed for PGE-2 content. Chondrocytes were analyzed by microscopy and immunofluorescence for type II collagen. Data was analyzed by ANOVA with the Tukey post-hoc test. Values of p<0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Results: By following this method, it was found that chondrocytes attached, multiplied on microcarriers, and produced extracellular matrix material, as illustrated in FIGS. 6A and 6B. These figures show a phase contrast photomicropgraph of chondrocytes growing on microcarriers indicating that the cells proliferate and produce extracellular matrix.

As illustrated in FIG. 7 (“Light Microscope Image of Immunostained Chondrocytes Confirming Their Continued Production of Type II Collagen Which Is Characteristic of their Articular Cartilage Phenotype”), the cultures formed aggregates and immunostained for type II collagen, indicating continued production of the protein.

As illustrated in FIG. 8 (“Production of PGE-2 by Chondrocytes after IL-1β indicating that the chondrocytes continue to be responsive even at subsequent passage”), activation of chondrocyte-seeded microcarriers at passage 3 and 4 showed similar responsiveness to the cytokine with IL-1β, PGE-2 levels of 179% and 165% of non-activated controls, respectively.

Pretreatment of chondrocyte-seeded microcarriers with the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS significantly reduced PGE-2 levels to about 60% below non-activated controls (p<0.05).

As illustrated in FIG. 9 (“PGE-2 Production by Chondrocytes Is Inbited by the Combination of ASU-CS and Glu indicating that the combination decreases the production of this pro-inflammatory marker”), chondrocytes increased PGE-2 levels (19152±2721 pg/mL) when activated with IL-1β. ASU, CS, and Glu combination inhibited PGE-2 production (4020±468 pg/mL) by 79% when compared to IL-1β activated control (p<0.05).

Conclusion: This evidence demonstrates that the microcarrier spinner culture system can be used to evaluate chondrocyte responses to pro-inflammatory stimuli and to identify agents that can modify these responses. The dynamic condition in the microcarrier spinner bioreactor appears to recapitulate the biomechanical environment that chondrocytes encounter in the joint. Therefore, the microcarrier spinner culture system may represent a useful tool to evaluate the potential anti-inflammatory properties of natural products. Using this culture system, we observed that the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS effectively blocks activation of the inflammatory pathway.

EXAMPLE 8 Suppression of TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, and p38 Expression by the Combination of Avocado Soy Unsaponifiables, Glucosamine, and Chondroitin Sulfate in Human Macrophage-Like THP-1 Cells

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease characterized by erosion of articular cartilage and secondary inflammation of the synovial membrane. The synovial membrane contains monocyte/macrophage-like cells that produce mediators critical to the pathogenesis of OA. Such pro-inflammatory mediators include chemokines, cytokines, prostaglandins, and nitric oxide. Recent clinical and in vitro studies have indicated that certain natural products such as Avocado Soybean Unsaponifiables (ASU), Glucosamine (Glu), and Chondroitin Sulfate (CS) each have anti-inflammatory properties. ASU has been reported to reduce pain and functional disability in OA patients. Similarly, the combination of Glu and CS was also shown to alleviate pain and improve joint mobility in the subgroup of patients suffering with moderate to severe OA. In the study of Example 8, we evaluated whether the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS would have a more profound effect in suppressing pro-inflammatory gene expression than ASU alone, or the combination of Glu and CS together. These treatments were tested in the well-documented surrogate monocyte/macrophage THP-1 cell line.

The study of Example 8 seeks to determine whether the combination of Avocado Soy Unsaponifiables (ASU), glucosamine (Glu), and chondroitin sulfate (CS) was more effective in suppressing pro-inflammatory gene expression than ASU alone, or the combination of Glu and CS together.

Methods: Human monocyte/macrophage surrogate THP-1 cells (5×10⁵ cells) were incubated for 24 hrs at 37° C. and 5% CO2 with: (i) control media alone, (ii) ASU (8.3 μg/ml; NMX10000™-ASU), (iii) Glu (15 mM; FCHG49®) and CS (20 μg/ml; TRH122®), or with (iv) a combination of ASU (8.3 μg/ml), Glu (15 mM), and CS (20 μg/ml). All test materials were supplied by Nutramax Laboratories, Inc., Edgewood, Md. The cells were then activated with 20 ng/ml LPS for 1 hour. Total RNA was extracted and subjected to RT-PCR analysis using primers specific to TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, p38, and S14 as the housekeeping gene.

Results: Pre-treatment with the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS profoundly suppressed the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and iNOS by 50-80% in activated THP-1 cells. The combination treatment reduced TNF-α and IL-1β expression to levels similar to baseline non-activated controls and reduced iNOS expression to levels lower than baseline non-activated levels. The inhibitory effect of the combined preparation on TNF-α, IL-1β, and iNOS expression is more profound than ASU alone, or Glu and CS together. The inhibition of cytokine and iNOS expression is associated with a profound suppression of p38 expression.

As illustrated in FIG. 10 (“Inhibition of TNF-α Expression in Monocyte/macrophage-like THP-1 cells by the Combination of ASU-CS-Glu indicating that the combination appears to be better than individual components”), pre-incubation with the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS suppressed TNF-α expression by >75% in LPS-activated cells. The combination treatment down-regulated TNF-α expression to levels similar to non-activated control (C) levels. The inhibitory effect of the combination was more profound than the individual agents alone.

As illustrated in FIG. 11 (“Inhibition of IL-1β Expression in Monocyte/macrophage-like THP-1 cells by the Combination of ASU-CS-Glu indicating that the combination appears to be better than individual components”), pre-incubation with the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS suppressed IL-1β expression by 50% in LPS-activated cells. The combination treatment was more effective in suppressing IL-1β expression than the individual agents alone.

As illustrated in FIG. 12 (“Inhibition of iNOS Expression in Monocyte/macrophage-like THP-1 cells by the Combination of ASU-CS-Glu indicating that the combination appears to be better than individual components”), pre-incubation with the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS suppressed iNOS expression by 80% in LPS-activated cells. The combination suppressed iNOS expression to levels lower than non-activated control (C) levels. The combination was more effective in suppressing iNOS expression than the individual agents alone.

As illustrated in FIG. 13 (“Inhibition of p38 Expression in Monocyte/macrophage-like THP-1 cells by the Combination of ASU-CS-Glu indicating that the combination appears to be better than individual components”), pre-incubation with the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS suppressed p38 expression by 75% in LPS-activated cells. The combination treatment down-regulated p38 expression to levels lower than non-activated control (C) levels. The combination was more effective in suppressing p38 expression than the individual agents alone.

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION: This example demonstrates that the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS was more effective in suppressing pro-inflammatory gene expression than ASU alone, or Glu and CS together. The suppression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and iNOS was associated with down-regulation of p38, a key signal transduction mediator involved in joint inflammation. These findings suggest the potential clinical utility of the combination treatment to alleviate pain and inflammation in OA patients, particularly for those who fail to respond to the single treatments alone.

EXAMPLE 9 Inhibition of Cyclooxygenase-2 Gene Expression and Prostaglandin E2 Production by Avocado Soybean Unsaponifiables (ASU) in Chondrocytes

Introduction: Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is a critical enzyme involved in inflammation and plays a key role in the production of the pro-inflammatory mediator prostaglandin (PGE-2). Also known as prostaglandin G/H synthase, COX-2 catalyzes the stepwise conversion of arachidonic acid into two short-lived intermediates, prostaglandin G (PGG) and prostaglandin II (PGH). PGG isomerizes to different forms, including PGE-2. Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used extensively to suppress inflammation and alleviate pain in osteoarthritis (OA) by inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. More recently, Complementary and Alternative Medicines (CAM), such as plant-derived products, have been documented to exert potent anti-inflammatory activity. See, e.g., Soeken K L. et al. Clin J. Pain. 20(1): 13-8, 2004. Among these are extracts from Avocado Soybean Unsaponifables (ASU). The anti-inflammatory activity of ASU has been tested on tissue cell prototypes primarily derived from the immune-inflammatory system. Little is known about the effect of ASU on cartilage cells. As the only cellular component of cartilage, chondrocytes synthesize pro-inflammatory mediators such as PGE-2. The study of Example 9 tested the hypothesis that ASU effectively inhibits COX-2 gene expression, thereby suppressing PGE-2 synthesis.

Materials and Methods: Articular chondrocytes were isolated from the metacarpal joints of mature Holsteins by collagenase digestion. Chondrocytes were plated (5×105/well) and maintained for 5-7 days prior to use. Chondrocytes were pre-incubated with: (i) ASU (25 μg/ml) for 72 μl s, or (ii) control media alone for 72 hrs. The chondrocytes were next re-incubated with control media alone or activated with 20 ng/ml of Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at 37° C., 5% CO₂, for: (a) 1 hour to determine COX-2 expression by RT-PCR analysis and (b) 24 hours to measure secreted PGE-2 levels by immunoassay. Cells were lysed and total RNA was extracted with TRIzol® (Life Technologies™. Equal amounts (1 μg) of total RNA were subjected to reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Bovine primers specific for COX-2, and GAPDH as the housekeeping gene were used. The gels containing ethidium bromide were electrophoresed to visualize the bands under UV light. Three to five separate runs were performed. Multiple comparisons by one-way ANOVA (Tukey post-hoc analysis) were performed using the SigmaStat statistical program where p<0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results: Pre-incubation of chondrocytes with Avocado Soybean Unsaponifiables reduced baseline expression of COX-2 in non-activated bovine chondrocytes. As shown in FIGS. 14A and 14B (“Inhibition of COX-2 Expression in Activated Chondrocytes by ASU”), pre-incubation of chondrocytes with ASU for 72 hrs, followed by activation with LPS for 1 hour, profoundly blocked the activation of COX-2 transcripts down to baseline levels.

In addition, as shown in FIG. 15 (“Inhibition of PGE-2 Production Activated Chondrocytes by ASU”), pre-incubation of chondrocytes with ASU for 72 hours followed by activation with LPS for 24 hours, significantly reduced the concentration of secreted PGE-2 (P<0.01), as shown in FIG. 15. Multiple comparisons by one-way ANOVA (Tukey post-hoc analysis) were performed using the SigmaStat statistical program where p<0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Discussion/Conclusion: The study of example 9 demonstrates that ASU inhibits the activation of COX-2 expression in chondrocytes. This inhibition results in decreased production of the pro-inflammatory mediator PGE-2. Blockage of PGE-2 production has been documented to relieve pain associated with inflammation. Our findings support the proposed utility of ASU in the management of painful conditions, exemplified by osteoarthritis.

EXAMPLE 10 Inhibition of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokine and COX-2 Expression in Chondrocytes and Monocytes by Avocado Soybean Unsaponifiables (ASU)

The cytokines TNF-α, and IL-1β, and the enzyme cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), are known as the principal mediators in chronic inflammatory disorders. COX-2 is the critical enzyme involved in inflammation by regulating the production of prostaglandin PGE-2. Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used extensively to suppress inflammation and alleviate pain, particularly in osteoarthritis, by inhibiting cytokine and PG synthesis. More recently, alternative approaches to the management of pain and inflammation have provided encouraging results. Among these are extracts from Avocado Soybean Unsaponifiables (ASU). Clinical studies in humans suggest that ASU reduces pain associated with inflammation and reduces the extent of joint space narrowing. Little is known about the effect of ASU on cellular targets. The study of Example 10 tested the hypothesis that ASU inhibits gene expression of COX-2, TNF-α and IL-1β in chondrocytes and monocytes. The surrogate monocyte-macrophage-like THP-1 cells were used.

Articular chondrocytes (5×10⁵/well) from the metacarpal joints of mature Holsteins and human THP-1 monocyte-like cells (5×10⁵/well) were pre-incubated with: (i) ASU (25 μg/mL) or (ii) control media alone for 72 and 24 hrs respectively. Cells were re-incubated with control media alone or 20 ng/ml of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) for: (a) 1 hr to determine gene expression by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis and (b) 24 hrs to measure secreted PGE-2 levels by immunoassay. Primers specific for bovine and human COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β and GAPDH as the housekeeping gene were used. The gels containing ethidium bromide were electrophoresed to visualize the DNA bands under UV light. Three to five separate runs were performed. Multiple comparisons by one-way ANOVA (Tukey post-hoc analysis) were performed using the SigmaStat statistical program where p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. ASU reduced baseline expression of COX-2, TNF-α and IL-1β in non-activated bovine chondrocytes.

Moreover, ASU blocked the activation of these mediators in cells induced by LPS. Blockage of COX-2 expression led to significant reduction of secreted PGE-2 by 93+/−1% (P<0.01). Similarly, pre-incubation of THP-1 cells with ASU for 24 hrs followed by activation with LPS for 1 hr profoundly blocked the expression of TNF-α and IL-1βtranscripts compared to control cells activated with LPS alone.

The study of Example 10 demonstrates for the first time that ASU dramatically suppresses the expression of TNF-α and IL-1β in chondrocytes and monocytes, while confirming the reduction of COX-2 transcripts in chondrocytes. This observation supports the positive clinical findings that ASU ameliorates pain and inflammation. Our study supports the proposed utility of ASU in the management of painful conditions, exemplified by osteoarthritis.

EXAMPLE 11 Pro-Inflammatory Gene Expression in Chondrocytes is Inhibited by the Combination of Avocado Soybean Unsaponifiables, Glucosamine, and Chondroitin Sulfate

Introduction: Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease characterized by erosion of articular cartilage and secondary inflammation of the synovial membrane. Cartilage erosion is induced by pro-inflammatory mediators produced by chondrocytes in cartilage and monocyte/macrophages localized in the synovial membrane. Clinical studies have documented the benefit of using Avocado Soybean Unsaponifiables (ASU), glucosamine (Glu), and chondroitin sulfate (CS) in the management of OA. ASU has been shown to reduce pain and minimize functional impairment in OA patients. See, e.g., Ernst E. Clin Rheum. 2003; 22(4-5): 285-8. Similarly, the combination of Glu and CS significantly reduced lameness and improved joint mobility in animals suffering from OA. See, e.g., Hanson R R et al. Equine Practice. 1997; 19(9):16-22; and Canapp S O et al. Amer. J. Vet. Res. 1999; 60(12): 1552-7. See also, e.g., Henrotin Y E et al. Clin Rheum. 1998; 17(1): 31-9; and Chan P S et al. Osteoarthritis Cart. 2005; 13(5): 387-94. Expression of pro-inflammatory mediators is regulated through the p38 MAPK signaling pathway. Our study evaluated whether the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS profoundly down-regulated pro-inflammatory gene expression through the p38 signaling pathway. We evaluated the effect of these compounds in human and equine chondrocytes.

Materials and Methods: Equine chondrocytes were isolated from articular cartilage by collagenase digestion. Equine chondrocytes and human articular chondrocytes (ATCC) were plated at a density of 5×10⁵ cells/well. Cells were incubated at 37° C., 5% CO₂ for 24 hrs with control media alone, or physiologic concentrations of: (i) ASU (8.3 μg/ml; NMX1000™-ASU), (ii) Glu (11 μg/ml; FCHG49®) and CS (20 μg/ml; TRH122®), or (iii) a combination of ASU (8.3 μg/ml), Glu (11 μg/ml), and CS (20 μg/ml). To induce inflammation, cells were activated for 1 hr with lipopolysaccharide (20 ng/ml, LPS) or interleukin-1-beta (10 ng/ml, IL-1β). Total RNA was isolated using TRIzol® (Life Technologies™) and gene expression was analyzed using RT-PCR.

Results: In activated equine chondrocytes, the combination treatment suppressed COX-2 expression to levels similar to non-activated control levels. In addition, the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS suppressed chemokine expression in activated human chondrocytes. See FIG. 16 (“Inhibition of Chemokine IL-8 Expression in Activated Chondrocytes by the Combination of ASU-CS-Glu indicating that the combination appears to be better than individual components”) and FIG. 17 (“Inhibition of Chemokine MCP Expression in Activated Chondrocytes by the Combination of ASU-CS-Glu indicating that the combination appears to be better than individual components”). Interleukin-8 (IL-8) and MCP expression was down-regulated to levels similar to non-activated control levels.

Discussion/Conclusion: The study of Example 11 demonstrated that the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS profoundly suppressed pro-inflammatory gene expression in chondrocytes. The combination treatment was effective in reducing the expression of chemokines. The suppression of pro-inflammatory mediators, such as chemokines, are critical in modulating the pro-inflammatory response in the osteoarthritic joint. Our results reinforce the potential clinical utility of the combination of ASU, Glu, and CS in the management of OA, providing an alternative option to patients who fail to respond to the single agents alone.

Based on the teaching of the present invention, one of skill in the art would understand that combinations of the compounds taught by the present invention would act synergistically. For example, it is understood that glucosamine has stimulatory effects on chondrocyte metabolism which, by itself, aids in ameliorating diseases of cartilage degradation. However, an increase in cell metabolism can also produce an increase in free-radical production, as a natural by-product of oxidative phosphorylation. The increase in free radical production would dilute the beneficial effects of the glucosamine administration. By combining L-ergothioneine with glucosamine, one would expect an increase in metabolism and a reduction in free-radical damage, providing for a greater benefit than if compounds leading to one of these effects were provided. Therefore, one of skill in the art, based on the teaching of the present invention, would understand that combining glucosamine with L-ergothioneine would be more beneficial than providing either alone. The synergy that exists between certain compounds in the present invention also enables the use of lower doses of each compound. Although these compounds are quite safe, there may be a potential for side effects. For example, large doses of glucosamine sulfate or chondroitin sulfate can cause gastrointestinal disturbances in some individuals. In addition, these compounds are costly; for these reasons, the ability to minimize the dose and still achieve beneficial effects is desirable.

Many modifications may be made without departing from the basic spirit of the present invention. While various embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it should be understood that they have been presented by way of example only, and not limitation. Accordingly, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced other than has been specifically described herein. Thus, the breadth and scope of the present invention should not be limited by any of the above-described exemplary embodiments, but should be defined only in accordance with the following claims and their equivalents. 

1. A formulation for modulating inflammation associated with damage to connective tissue in humans and animals, comprising: one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables; an aminosugar; and a glycosaminoglycan component, wherein the amounts of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables, glucosamine, and glycosaminoglycan component in the formulation are effective in combination to at least one of: substantially inhibit or downregulate gene expression of at least one of COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, p38, and chemokines; and reduce PGE-2 levels.
 2. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the amounts of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables, aminosugar, and glycosaminoglycan in the formulation are effective in combination to substantially inhibit gene expression of at least one of COX-2, TNF-α, iNOS, p38, IL-1β, and chemokines in tissue cells.
 3. The formulation of claim 2, wherein the tissues cells are selected from the group consisting of chondrocytes, macrophage monocytes, and fibroblasts.
 4. The formulation of claim 1, further comprising methylsulfanylmethane (MSM).
 5. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables comprises one or more phytosterols.
 6. The formulation of claim 5, wherein the phytosterols are selected from the group consisting of campesterol, stigmasterol, dihydro-brassisterol, and Beta-sitosterol.
 7. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the formulation is in the form of a powder, and wherein the powder is created by combining the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables with one or more excipients or carriers.
 8. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the aminosugar is natural, synthetic or semi-synthetic.
 9. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables is natural, synthetic or semi-synthetic.
 10. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the aminosugar has been chemically modified by one or more of esterification, sulfation, polysulfation, acetylation and methylation.
 11. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the aminosugar is selected from the group consisting of glucosamine, glucosamine salts, and mixtures thereof.
 12. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the aminosugar is selected from the group consisting of glucosamine hydrochloride, glucosamine sulfate, glucosamine phosphate, mannosamine and salts of N-acetylglucosamine.
 13. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the glycosaminoglycan component comprises a natural, synthetic or semi-synthetic glycosaminoglycan, a glycosaminoglycan-like compound, a glycosaminoglycan precursor or fragments of a glycosaminoglycan.
 14. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the glycosaminoglycan component has been chemically modified by one or more of esterification, sulfation, polysulfation, acetylation and methylation.
 15. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the glycosaminoglycan component is selected from the group consisting of chondroitin, chondroitin salts, hyaluronic acid, pentosan polysulfate and mixtures thereof.
 16. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the glycosaminoglycan component is chondroitin sulfate.
 17. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables ranges from about 5 milligrams to about 5 grams.
 18. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose for a small animal of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables ranges from about 5 milligrams to about 1000 milligrams.
 19. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose for a human of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables ranges from about 25 milligrams to about 1500 milligrams.
 20. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose for a large animal of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables ranges from about 100 milligrams to about 5 grams.
 21. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables ranges from about 0.5 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg.
 22. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables for a small animal ranges from about 0.5 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg.
 23. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables for a human ranges from about 0.5 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg.
 24. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables for a large animal ranges from about 0.5 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg.
 25. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the aminosugar ranges from about 25 milligrams to about 12 grams.
 26. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose for a small animal of the aminosugar ranges from about 25 milligrams to about 3 grams.
 27. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose for a human of the aminosugar ranges from about 100 milligrams to about 4 grams.
 28. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose for a large animal of the aminosugar ranges from about 300 milligrams to about 15 grams.
 29. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the aminosugar ranges from about 3 mg/kg to about 125 mg/kg.
 30. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the aminosugar for a small animal ranges from about 3 mg/kg to about 125 mg/kg.
 31. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the aminosugar for a human ranges from about 3 mg/kg to about 125 mg/kg.
 32. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the aminosugar for a large animal ranges from about 3 mg/kg to about 125 mg/kg.
 33. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the glycosaminoglycan component ranges from about 15 milligrams to about 12 grams.
 34. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the glycosaminoglycan component for a small animal ranges from about 15 milligrams to about 2 grams.
 35. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the glycosaminoglycan component for a human ranges from about 75 milligrams to about 4 grams.
 36. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the glycosaminoglycan component for a large animal ranges from about 300 milligrams to about 12 grams.
 37. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the glycosaminoglycan component ranges from about 1 mg/kg to about 75 mg/kg.
 38. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the glycosaminoglycan component for a small animal ranges from about 1 mg/kg to about 75 mg/kg.
 39. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the glycosaminoglycan component for a human ranges from about 1 mg/kg to about 75 mg/kg.
 40. The formulation of claim 1, wherein a dose of the glycosaminoglycan component for a large animal ranges from about 1 mg/kg to about 75 mg/kg.
 41. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the formulation is prepared for intramuscular, intravenous, oral, subcutaneous, rectal, topical, transcutaneous, intranasal, intraarticular, sublingual and intraperitoneal administration.
 42. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the formulation is prepared for administration in the form of one or more pills, one or more tablets, one or more capsules, one or more creams, powders, liquid form, aerosol form, extended release form, or in the form of an injectable.
 43. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the formulation is prepared for administration in the form of one or more liquid-filled capsules, one or more softgel capsules, a paste, chewable tablets, one or more scoops of powder, one or more sachets, or one or more treats.
 44. A method of preventing, treating, managing, repairing or modulating inflammation associated with damage to connective tissue in humans and animals comprising administering the formulation of any of claims 1 to 43 to a human or animal in need thereof.
 45. A method of preventing, treating, managing, repairing or modulating inflammation associated with damage to connective tissue in humans and animals comprising administering the formulation of claim 1 to a human or animal in need thereof, wherein the formulation is administered daily to reach a steady state concentration in a body fluid of the human or animal that bathes a target cell type that affects at least one of COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, p38, and chemokines, and wherein the dosage is subsequently reduced in at least one of frequency and amount to maintain a desired response in the human or animal.
 46. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables are standardized to about 30% sterol.
 47. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables are standardized to about 30% sterol in approximately a 2-1 ratio of soybean unsaponifiables to avocado unsaponifiables.
 48. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables are a solid at room temperature and a liquid at human body temperature.
 49. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the amounts of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables, glucosamine, and glycosaminoglycan component in the formulation are effective in combination to substantially inhibit or downregulate gene expression of one or more chemokines, wherein the one or more chemokines are selected from the group consisting of IL-8 and MCP.
 50. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the amounts of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables, glucosamine, and glycosaminoglycan component in the formulation are effective in combination to reduce a level of PGE-2.
 51. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the amount of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables is selected to achieve a level of about 8 to about 25 μg/mL of body fluid that bathes a target cell type that affects at least one of COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, p38, and chemokines.
 52. The formulation of claim 1, wherein the aminosugar comprises glucosamine in a concentration effective to achieve a dosage of about 10 μg/mL in the target human or animal, and wherein the glycosaminoglycan component comprises chondroitin sulfate in a concentration effective to achieve a dosage of about 20 μg/mL in the target human or animal.
 53. A method of modulating markers of inflammation of connective tissue in a target human or animal, comprising: administering a composition comprising one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables, glucosamine, and chondroitin sulfate to a human or animal, wherein the composition is administered to the target human or animal to modulate inflammation in an amount effective to moderate gene expression of at least one of COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, p38, and chemokines to approximately normal values.
 54. A formulation for modulating inflammation associated with damage to connective tissue in humans and animals, comprising: one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables; an aminosugar component comprising comprising glucosamine, glucosamine salts, or mixtures thereof, and a glycosaminoglycan component comprising chondroitin, chondroitin salts, or mixtures thereof, wherein the amounts of the one or more avocado/soybean unsaponifiables, aminosugar component, and glycosaminoglycan component in the formulation are effective in combination to substantially inhibit or downregulate gene expression of COX-2, TNF-α, IL-1β, iNOS, p38, and chemokines, and to reduce PGE-2 levels. 